Redox regulation by priming agents towards a sustainable agriculture.

Plant are sessile organisms that are often subjected to a multitude of environmental stresses, with the occurrence of these events being further intensified by global climate change. Crop species therefore require specific adaptations to tolerate climatic variability for sustainable food production. Plant stress results in excess accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) leading to oxidative stress, and loss of cellular redox balance in the plant cells. Moreover, enhancement of cellular oxidation as well as oxidative signals have recently been recognized as crucial players in plant growth regulation under stress conditions. Multiple roles of redox regulation in crop production have been well documented, and major emphasis has focused on key redox-regulated proteins and non-protein molecules, such as NAD(P)H, thioredoxins, glutathione, glutaredoxins, peroxiredoxins, ascorbate, and reduced ferredoxin. These have been widely implicated in the regulation of (epi)genetic factors modulating growth and vigor of crop plants, particularly within an agricultural context. In this regard, priming with the employment of chemical and biological agents has emerged as a fascinating approach to improve plant tolerance against various abiotic and biotic stressors. Priming in plants is a physiological process, where prior exposure to specific stressors induces a state of heightened alertness, enabling a more rapid and effective defense response upon subsequent encounters with similar challenges. Priming is reported to play an important role in the regulation of cellular redox homeostasis, maximizing crop productivity under stress conditions and thus achieving yield security. By taking this into consideration, the present review is an up-to-date critical evaluation of promising plant priming technologies and their role in the regulation of redox components towards enhanced plant adaptations to extreme unfavorable environmental conditions. The challenges and opportunities of plant priming are addressed, with the aim to encourage future research in this field towards effective application in crop stress management including horticultural species.

Nitric oxide acts upstream of indole-3-acetic acid in ameliorating arsenate stress in tomato seedlings.

After their discovery, nitric oxide (NO) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) have been reported as game-changing cellular messengers for reducing abiotic stresses in plants. But, information regarding their shared signaling in regulating metal stress is still unclear. Herein, we have investigated about the joint role of NO and IAA in mitigation of arsenate [As(V)] toxicity in tomato seedlings. Arsenate being a toxic metalloid increases the NPQ level and cell death while decreasing the biomass accumulation, photosynthetic pigments, chlorophyll a fluorescence, endogenous NO content in tomato seedlings. However, application of IAA or SNP to the As(V) stressed seedlings improved growth together with less accumulation of arsenic and thus, preventing cell death. Interestingly, addition of c-PTIO, {2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-4, 4, 5, 5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide, a scavenger of NO} and 2, 3, 5-triidobenzoic acid (TIBA, an inhibitor of polar auxin transport) further increased cell death and inhibited activity of GST, leading to As(V) toxicity. However, addition of IAA to SNP and TIBA treated seedlings reversed the effect of TIBA resulting into decreased As(V) toxicity. These findings demonstrate that IAA plays a crucial and advantageous function in NO-mediated reduction of As(V) toxicity in seedlings of tomato. Overall, this study concluded that IAA might be acting as a downstream signal for NO-mediated reduction of As(V) toxicity in tomato seedlings.

Silicon, a quasi-essential element: Availability in soil, fertilizer regime, optimum dosage, and uptake in plants.

The essentiality of silicon (Si) has always been a matter of debate as it is not considered crucial for the lifecycles of most plants. But beneficial effects of endogenous Si and its supplementation have been observed in many plants. Silicon plays a pivotal role in alleviating the biotic and abiotic stress in plants by acting as a physical barrier as well as affecting molecular pathways involved in stress tolerance, thus widely considered as "quasi-essential". In soil, most of Si is found in complex forms as mineral silicates which is not available for plant uptake. Monosilicic acid [Si(OH)4] is the only plant-available form of silicon (PAS) present in the soil. The ability of a plant to uptake Si is positively correlated with the PAS concentration of the soil. Since many cultivated soils often lack a sufficient amount of PAS, it has become common practice to supplement Si through the use of Si-based fertilizers in various crop cultivation systems. This review outlines the use of natural and chemical sources of Si as fertilizer, different regimes of Si fertilization, and conclude by identifying the optimum concentration of Si required to observe the beneficial effects in plants. Also, the different mathematical models defining the mineral dynamics for Si uptake at whole plant scale considering various natural factors like plant morphology, mineral distribution, and transporter expression have been discussed. Information provided here will further help in increasing understanding of Si role and thereby facilitate efficient exploration of the element as a fertilizer in crop production.

Evolution of reactive oxygen species cellular targets for plant development.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are the key players in regulating developmental processes of plants. Plants have evolved a large array of gene families to facilitate the ROS-regulated developmental process in roots and leaves. However, the cellular targets of ROS during plant evolutionary development are still elusive. Here, we found early evolution and large expansions of protein families such as mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) in the evolutionarily important plant lineages. We review the recent advances in interactions among ROS, phytohormones, gasotransmitters, and protein kinases. We propose that these signaling molecules act in concert to maintain cellular ROS homeostasis in developmental processes of root and leaf to ensure the fine-tuning of plant growth for better adaptation to the changing climate.

Cytokinin and indole-3-acetic acid crosstalk is indispensable for silicon mediated chromium stress tolerance in roots of wheat seedlings.

The rising heavy metal contamination of soils imposes toxic impacts on plants as well as other life forms. One such highly toxic and carcinogenic heavy metal is hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] that has been reported to prominently retard the plant growth. The present study investigated the potential of silicon (Si, 10 µM) to alleviate the toxicity of Cr(VI) (25 µM) on roots of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings. Application of Si to Cr(VI)-stressed wheat seedlings improved their overall growth parameters. This study also reveals the involvement of two phytohormones, namely auxin and cytokinin and their crosstalk in Si-mediated mitigation of the toxic impacts of Cr(VI) in wheat seedlings. The application of cytokinin alone to wheat seedlings under Cr(VI) stress reduced the intensity of toxic effects of Cr(VI). In combination with Si, cytokinin application to Cr(VI)-stressed wheat seedlings significantly minimized the decrease induced by Cr(VI) in different parameters such as root-shoot length (10.8% and 13%, respectively), root-shoot fresh mass (11.3% and 10.1%, respectively), and total chlorophyll and carotenoids content (13.4% and 6.8%, respectively) with respect to the control. This treatment also maintained the regulation of proline metabolism (proline content, and P5CS and PDH activities), ascorbate-glutathione (AsA-GSH) cycle and nutrient homeostasis. The protective effect of Si and cytokinin against Cr(VI) stress was minimized upon supplementation of an inhibitor of polar auxin transport- 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) which suggested a potential involvement of auxin in Si and cytokinin-mediated mitigation of Cr(VI) toxicity. The exogenous addition of a natural auxin - indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) confirmed auxin is an active member of a signaling cascade along with cytokinin that aids in Si-mediated Cr(VI) toxicity alleviation as IAA application reversed the negative impacts of TIBA on wheat roots treated with Cr(VI), cytokinin and Si. The results of this research are also confirmed by the gene expression analysis conducted for nutrient transporters (Lsi1, CCaMK, MHX, SULT1 and ZIP1) and enzymes involved in the AsA-GSH cycle (APX, GR, DHAR and MDHAR). The overall results of this research indicate towards possible induction of a crosstalk between cytokinin and IAA upon Si supplementation which in turn stimulates physiological, biochemical and molecular changes to exhibit protective effects against Cr(VI) stress. Further, the information obtained suggests probable employment of Si, cytokinin and IAA alone or combined in agriculture to maintain plant productivity under Cr(VI) stress and data regarding expression of key genes can be used to develop new crop varieties with enhanced resistance against Cr(VI) stress together with its reduced load in seedlings.

Methyl-salicylate: A surveillance system for triggering immunity in neighboring plants.

After being infested by aphids, plants trigger a signaling pathway that involves methyl salicylate as an airborne signaling molecule. Thus, the regulation of communication for systemically acquired resistance produced via methyl salicylate is helpful in generating stress resistance among plants against aphid infestation.

Epigenetics governs senescence.

Petal is one of the most esthetic and essential parts of a flower that fascinates the pollinators to enhance pollination. Petal senescence is a highly controlled and organized natural phenomenon assisted by phytohormones and gene regulation. It is an inelastically programmed event preceding to which petals give rise to color and scent that captivate pollinators, representing a flower's maturity for sexual reproduction. Till today, many genes involved in the petal senescence through genetic as well as epigenetic changes in response to hormones have been identified. In most of the species, petal senescence is controlled by ethylene, whereas others are independent of this hormone. It has also been proved that the increase in the carbohydrate contents like mannitol, inositol and trehalose delayed the senescence in tulips and Gladiolus. An increased sugar content prevents the biosynthesis of EIN3-like mRNA and further upregulates several senescence correlated genes. A wide range of different transcription factors as well as regulators are disparately expressed in ethylene insensitive and ethylene sensitive petal senescence. DcHB30, a downregulating factor, which upon linking physically to DcWRKY75 leads to the upregulation of ethylene promoting petal senescence. Here we describe the role of ethylene in petal senescence through epigenetic changes. Studies show that ethylene causes petal senescence through epigenetic changes. Feng et al. (Plant Physiol 192:546-564, 2023) observed that ARABIDOPSIS HOMOLOG OF TRITHORAX1 (DcATX1) promotes trimethylation of histone 3 (H3) at 4th lysine (H3K4me3) in Carnation. H3K4me3 further stimulates the expression of genes of ethylene biosynthesis and senescence, leading to senescence in Carnation.

Unlocking a 'lock-key' mechanism governing pollen-pistil interactions.

Pollen-pistil interactions ensure genetic diversity and shape the reproductive success of plants. Lan et al. recently revealed that the interaction among various receptor-like kinases, cell-wall proteins, and stigmatic RALF peptides (sRALFs) or pollen RALF peptides (pRALFs) on the stigma surface govern the penetration of pollen tubes in members of the Brassicaceae.

Encapsulated nanopesticides application in plant protection: Quo vadis?

The increased global food insecurity due to the growing population can be addressed with precision and sustainable agricultural practices. To tackle the issues regarding food insecurity, farmers used different agrochemicals that improved plant growth and protection. Among these agrochemicals, synthetic pesticides used for plant protection in the agricultural field have various disadvantages. Conventional applications of synthetic pesticides have drawbacks such as rapid degradation, poor solubility, and non-target effects, as well as increased pesticide runoff that pollutes the environment. Nanotechnology has evolved as a potential solution to increase agricultural productivity through the development of different nanoforms of agrochemicals such as nanopesticides, nano-fabricated fertilizers, nanocapsules, nanospheres, nanogels, nanofibers, nanomicelles, and nano-based growth promoters. Encapsulation of these pesticides inside the nanomaterials has provided good biocompatibility over conventional application by inhibiting the early degradation of active ingredients (AI), increasing the uptake and adhesion of pesticides, improving the stability, solubility, and permeability of the pesticides, and decreasing the environmental impacts due to the pesticide runoff. In this review, different nanoforms of encapsulated pesticides and their smart delivery systems; nanocarriers in RNA interference (RNAi) based pesticides; environmental fate, practical implications, management of nanopesticides; and future perspectives are discussed.

Does MPK4/12-HT1 function as a CO2/bicarbonate sensor to regulate the stomatal conductance under high CO2 levels?

KEY MESSAGE: Recently, a HT1 protein has been identified which causes continuous opening of stomata because of its kinase activity. However, reversible interaction between MAP4/12 and HT1 protein acts as a CO2/bicarbonate sensor and causes the closing of stomata by inhibiting HT1 kinase activity.

Zinc induced regulation of PCR1 gene for cadmium stress resistance in rice roots.

In this study, the interaction between zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) was investigated in rice roots to evaluate how Zn can protect the plants from Cd stress. Rice seedlings were treated with Cd (100 µM) and Zn (100 µM) in different combinations (Cd alone, Zn alone, Zn+ Cd, Zn+ Cd+ L-NAME, Zn+ Cd+ L-NAME+ SNP). Rice roots treated with only Zn also displayed similar toxic effects, however when combined with Cd exhibited improved growth. Treating the plant with Zn along with Cd distinctly reduced Cd concentration in roots while increasing its own accumulation due to modulation in expression of Zinc-Regulated Transporter (ZRT)-/IRT-Like Protein (OsZIP1) and Plant Cadmium Resistance1 (OsPCR1). Cd reduced plant biomass, cell viability, pigments, photosynthesis and causing oxidative stress due to inhibition in ascorbate-glutathione cycle. L-NAME (NG-nitro L-arginine methyl ester), prominently suppressed the beneficial impacts of Zn against Cd stress, whereas the presence of a NO donor, sodium nitroprusside (SNP), significantly reversed this effect of L-NAME. Collectively, results point that NO signalling is essential for Zn- mediated cross-tolerance against Cd stress via by modulating uptake of Cd and Zn and expression of OsZIP1 and OsPCR1, and ROS homeostasis due to fine tuning of ascorbate-glutathione cycle which finally lessened oxidative stress in rice roots. The results of this study can be utilized to develop new varieties of rice through genetic modifications which will be of great significance for maintaining crop productivity in Cd-contaminated areas throughout the world.

Ameliorative effects of Si-SNP synergy to mitigate chromium induced stress in Brassica juncea.

Hyperaccumulation of heavy metal in agricultural land has hampered yield of important crops globally. It has consequently deepened concerns regarding the burning issue of food security in the world. Among heavy metals, Chromium (Cr) is not needed for plant growth and found to pose detrimental effects on plants. Present study highlights the role of exogenous application of sodium nitroprusside (SNP, exogenous donor of NO) and silicon (Si) in alleviating detrimental ramification of Cr toxicity in Brassica juncea. The exposure of B. juncea to Cr (100 µM) under hydroponic system hampered the morphological parameters of plant growth like length and biomass and physiological parameters like carotenoid and chlorophyll contents. It also resulted in oxidative stress by disrupting the equilibrium between ROS production and antioxidant quenching leading to accumulation of ROS such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and superoxide (O2•‾) radicle which causes lipid peroxidation. However, application of Si and SNP both individually and in combination counteracted oxidative stress due to Cr by regulating ROS accumulation and enhancing antioxidant metabolism by upregulation of antioxidant genes of DHAR, MDHAR, APX and GR. As the alleviatory effects were more pronounced in plants treated with combined application of Si and SNP; therefore, our findings suggest that dual application of these two alleviators can be used to mitigate Cr stress.

Nitric oxide working: no worries about heat stress.

Nitric oxide (NO) has multifaceted roles in plants. He et al. report that NO produced in the shoot apex causes S-nitrosation of transcription factor GT-1. This mediator of NO signal perception subsequently regulates the expression of the HEAT SHOCK TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR A2 (HSFA2) gene, thus leading to thermotolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Peroxynitrite is essential for aerenchyma formation in rice roots under waterlogging conditions.

MAIN CONCLUSION: In this study, we report that peroxynitrite is necessary for ethylene-mediated aerenchyma formation in rice roots under waterlogging conditions. Plants under waterlogging stress face anoxygenic conditions which reduce their metabolism and induce several adaptations. The formation of aerenchyma is of paramount importance for the survival of plants under waterlogging conditions. Though some studies have shown the involvement of ethylene in aerenchyma formation under waterlogging conditions, the implication of peroxynitrite (ONOO-) in such a developmental process remains elusive. Here, we report an increase in aerenchyma formation in rice roots exposed to waterlogging conditions under which the number of aerenchyma cells and their size was further enhanced in response to exogenous ethephon (a donor of ethylene) or SNP (a donor of nitric oxide) treatment. Application of epicatechin (a peroxynitrite scavenger) to waterlogged plants inhibited the aerenchyma formation, signifying that ONOO- might have a role in aerenchyma formation. Interestingly, epicatechin and ethephon co-treated waterlogged plants were unable to form aerenchyma, indicating the necessity of ONOO- in ethylene-mediated aerenchyma formation under waterlogging conditions. Taken together, our results highlight the role of ONOO- in ethylene-mediated aerenchyma formation in rice and could be used in the future to develop waterlogging stress-tolerant varieties of rice.

Recent Advances and Perspectives of Nanomaterials in Agricultural Management and Associated Environmental Risk: A Review.

The advancement in nanotechnology has enabled a significant expansion in agricultural production. Agri-nanotechnology is an emerging discipline where nanotechnological methods provide diverse nanomaterials (NMs) such as nanopesticides, nanoherbicides, nanofertilizers and different nanoforms of agrochemicals for agricultural management. Applications of nanofabricated products can potentially improve the shelf life, stability, bioavailability, safety and environmental sustainability of active ingredients for sustained release. Nanoscale modification of bulk or surface properties bears tremendous potential for effective enhancement of agricultural productivity. As NMs improve the tolerance mechanisms of the plants under stressful conditions, they are considered as effective and promising tools to overcome the constraints in sustainable agricultural production. For their exceptional qualities and usages, nano-enabled products are developed and enforced, along with agriculture, in diverse sectors. The rampant usage of NMs increases their release into the environment. Once incorporated into the environment, NMs may threaten the stability and function of biological systems. Nanotechnology is a newly emerging technology, so the evaluation of the associated environmental risk is pivotal. This review emphasizes the current approach to NMs synthesis, their application in agriculture, interaction with plant-soil microbes and environmental challenges to address future applications in maintaining a sustainable environment.

Nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide mediated regulation of chromium (VI) toxicity in wheat seedlings involves alterations in antioxidants and high affinity sulfate transporter.

Chromium contamination of the soil is a major scientific concern with reference to crop productivity and human health. In recent years, several approaches are being employed in managing metal toxicity in crop plants. Here, we have investigated about potential and probable crosstalk of nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in mitigating hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] toxicity in wheat seedlings. Cr(VI) toxicity reduced the fresh mass and overall growth due to accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and decreased efficiency of AsA-GSH cycle and downregulation of high affinity sulfate transporter. However, exogenous treatment of NO and H2O2 significantly alleviated Cr toxicity. Application of NO and ROS scavengers reversed stress mitigating effects of NO and H2O2, respectively suggesting that endogenous NO and H2O2 are necessary for rendering Cr toxicity tolerance. Furthermore, NO rescued negative effect of diphenylene iodonium (DPI, NADPH oxidase inhibitor) and H2O2 reversed the negative effect of c-PTIO suggesting that they exhibit independent signalling in mitigating Cr stress. Altogether, data indicated that NO and H2O2 rendered mitigation of Cr stress by up-regulating enzymes (activity and relative gene expression) and metabolites of AsA-GSH cycle, high affinity sulfate transporter (relative gene expression) and glutathione biosynthesis which collectively controlled occurrence of oxidative stress.

Bacterial community and root endodermis: a complementary relationship.

There are feedforward and feedback loops along the microbiota-root-shoot axis to maintain plant growth or defense under environmental stresses. Here, we highlight a reciprocal interaction between the endodermis and the plant-bacterial community, which stabilizes the diffusion barriers to maintain nutrient homeostasis under nutritional stress.

GABA: a key player of abiotic stress regulation.

Abiotic stress is considered as the main culprit for reduction of global food production. Recent studies have reported GABA as a major regulator of abiotic stress and thus opening new avenues in research on emerging roles of GABA in abiotic stress acclimation in plants.